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Venus Planets
Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is a rocky planet and among the planets of the Solar System the most similar in mass and size to its orbital neighbour Earth. Venus has by far the densest atmosphere of all rocky planets of the Solar System, composed mostly of carbon dioxide, with a thick and global sulfuric acid cloud cover. At the surface it has a mean temperature of 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F) and a pressure of 92 times that of Earth's at sea level, turning the carbon dioxide atmosphere into a supercritical state. Venus is the third brightest object in Earth's sky, after the Moon and the Sun. It orbits the Sun inside of Earth's orbit (inferiorly). It therefore appears like Mercury in Earth's night sky always relatively close to the Sun, either as a "morning star" or an "evening star".
Venus is from Earth the planet with the lowest delta-v needed to travel to, and is therefore often used for gravity assists and a common waypoint for interplanetary flights from Earth. The orbits of Venus and Earth are the closest between any two Solar System planets, but Mercury and the Sun stay on average closer. Venus and Earth approach each other in synodic periods of 1.6 years. A Venusian day is 116.75 Earth days long, about half a Venusian solar year, which is 224.7 Earth days long. The rotation of Venus has been slowed and turned against its orbital direction (retrograde) by the currents and drag of its atmosphere.
Pronunciation: /'vi:nÉs/
Named after: Roman goddess of love
Symbol:
Orbital characteristics
Epoch J2000
Aphelion: 0.728213 AU
(108.94 million km)
Perihelion: 0.718440 AU (107.48 million km)
Semi-major axis: 0.723332 AU
(108.21 million km)
Eccentricity: 0.006772
Orbital period (sidereal): 224.701 d
0.615 198 Julian year
0.615 187 sidereal year
1.92 Venus solar day
Orbital period (synodic): 583.92 days
Average orbital speed: 35.02 km/s
Mean anomaly: 50.115°
Inclination: 3.394 58° to ecliptic
3.86° to Sun's equator
2.15° to invariable plane
Longitude of ascending node: 76.680°
Argument of perihelion: 54.884°
Satellites: None
Physical characteristics
Mean radius: 6,051.8 Âą1.0 km
0.9499 Earths
Flattening: 0
Surface area: 4.6023 x 108 kmÂē
0.902 Earths
Volume: 9.2843 x 1011 kmÂģ 0.857 Earths
Mass: 4.8675 x 1024 kg 0.815 Earths
Mean density: 5.243 g/cmÂģ
Surface gravity: 8.87 m/sÂē (0.904 go)
Escape velocity: 10.36 km/s (6.44 mi/s)
Synodic rotation period: -116.75 d (retrograde) 1
Venus solar day
Sidereal rotation period: - 243.0226 d
(retrograde)
Equatorial rotation velocity: 1.81 m/s
Axial tilt: 2.64° (for retrograde rotation)
177.36° (to orbit)
North pole right ascension: 18h 11m 2s
272.76°
North pole declination: 67.16°
Albedo: 0.689 (geometric) 0.76 (Bond)
Temperature: 232 K (-41 °C) (blackbody temperature)
Surface temp. min mean max :
Kelvin: 737 K
Celsius: 464 °C
Fahrenheit: 867 °F
Surface absorbed dose rate : 2.1 Ã10-6 ÂĩGy/h
Surface: 2.2 Ã 10-6 ÂĩSv/h
equivalent dose rate : 0.092-22 ÂĩSv/h at cloud level
Apparent magnitude: -4.92 to -2.98
Absolute magnitude (H): 4.4
Angular diameter: 9.7"-66.0"
Atmosphere
Surface pressure: 93 bar (9.3 MPa)
92 atm
Composition by volume :
96.5% carbon dioxide
3.5% nitrogen
0.015% sulphur dioxide
0.0070% argon
0.0020% water vapour
0.0017% carbon monoxide
0.0012% helium
0.0007% neon
Trace carbonyl sulfide
Trace hydrogen chloride
Trace hydrogen fluoride.
1. ^ Defining the rotation as retrograde, as done by NASA space missions and the USGS, puts Ishtar Terra in the northern hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 2.64°. Following the right-hand rule for prograde rotation puts Ishtar Terra in the negative hemisphere and makes the axial tilt 177.36°.
Internally, Venus has a core, mantle, and crust. Venus lacks an internal dynamo, and its weakly induced magnetosphere is caused by atmospheric interactions with the solar wind. Internal heat escapes through active volcanism, resulting in resurfacing instead of plate tectonics. Venus is one of two planets in the Solar System, the other being Mercury, that have no moons. Conditions perhaps favourable for life on Venus have been identified at its cloud layers. Venus may have had liquid surface water early in its history with a habitable environment, before a runaway greenhouse effect evaporated any water and turned Venus into its present state.
Venus has been a feature of cultures for thousands of years, historically a habitable planet in fiction and important in the development of astronomy. The first telescopic observations of Venus in 1610 crucially proved the heliocentric model. In 1961 Venus was for the first time visited by a spacecraft (Venera 1), as a result of the very first interplanetary flight, but only the next interplantary spacecraft, a year later, returned data (Mariner 2). Many more interplanetary firsts followed. The study of Venus has informed the understanding of the greenhouse effect, global warming and climate change on Earth.
Physical characteristics
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System, meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth, It is similar to Earth in size and mass and is often described as Earth's "sister" or "twin". Venus is very close to spherical due to its slow rotation. It has a diameter of 12,103.6 km (7,520.8 mi)-only 638.4 km (396.7 mi) less than Earth's-and its mass is 81.5% of Earth's, making it the third-smallest planet in the Solar System. Conditions on the surface of Venus differ radically from those on Earth because its dense atmosphere is 96.5% carbon dioxide, causing an intense greenhouse effect, with most of the remaining 3.5% being nitrogen. The surface pressure is 9.3 megapascals (93 bars), and the average surface temperature is 737 K (464 °C; 867 °F), above the critical points of both major constituents and making the surface atmosphere a supercritical fluid of mainly supercritical carbon dioxide and some supercritical nitrogen.
Geography
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by probes in the 20th century. Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks. The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990-91. There is evidence of extensive volcanism, and variations in the atmospheric sulphur dioxide may indicate that there are active volcanoes.
About 80% of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth, volcanic plains, consisting of 70% plains with wrinkle ridges and 10% smooth or lobate plains. Two highland "continents" make up the rest of its surface area, one lying in the planet's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator. The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra after Ishtar, the Babylonian goddess of love, and is about the size of Australia. The Maxwell Montes mountain range lies on Ishtar Terra. Its peak is the highest point on Venus, 11 km (7 mi) above the Venusian average surface elevation. The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra, after the Greek mythological goddess of love, and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America. A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area.
There is recent evidence of lava flow on Venus (2024), such as flows on Sif Mons, a shield volcano, and on Niobe Planitia, a flat plain. There are visible calderas. The planet has few impact craters, demonstrating that the surface is relatively young, at 300-600 million years old. Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters, mountains, and valleys commonly found on rocky planets.
Among these are flat-topped volcanic features called "farra", which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km (12 to 31 mi) across, and from 100 to 1,000 m (330 to 3,280 ft) high; radial, star-like fracture systems called "novae"; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs, known as "arachnoids"; and "coronae", circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression. These features are volcanic in origin.
Most Venusian surface
features are named after historical and mythological women. Exceptions are Maxwell Montes, named after James Clerk Maxwell, and highland regions Alpha Regio, Beta Regio, and Ovda Regio. The last three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union, the body which oversees planetary nomenclature.
The longitude of physical features on Venus is expressed relative to its prime meridian. The original prime meridian passed through the radar-bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve, located south of Alpha Regio., After the Venera missions were completed, the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne on Sedna Planitia.
The stratigraphically oldest tessera terrains have consistently lower thermal emissivity than the surrounding basaltic plains measured by Venus Express and Magellan, indicating a different, possibly a more felsic, mineral assemblage. The mechanism to generate a large amount of felsic crust usually requires the presence of a water ocean and plate tectonics, implying that habitable condition existed on early Venus, with large bodies of water at some point. However, the nature of tessera terrains is far from certain. Studies reported in 2023 suggested for the first time that Venus may have had plate tectonics during ancient times and, as a result, may have had a more habitable environment, possibly one capable of sustaining life. Venus has gained interest as a case for research into the development of Earth-like planets and their habitability.
Volcanism
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity.
Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth, and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km (60 mi) across. The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii. More than 85,000 volcanoes on Venus have been identified and mapped. This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth, but because its crust is older and is not subject to the erosion processes active on Earth.
Earth's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates, and has an average age of about 100 million years, whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300-600 million years old. Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus. Sulfur dioxide concentrations in the upper atmosphere dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986, jumped in 2006, and again declined 10-fold. This may mean that levels were boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions. It has been suggested that Venusian lightning (discussed below) could originate from volcanic activity (i.e. volcanic lightning). In January 2020, astronomers reported evidence suggesting that Venus is currently volcanically active, specifically the detection of olivine, a volcanic product that would weather quickly on the planet's surface.
This massive volcanic activity is fuelled by a hot interior, which models say could be explained by energetic collisions when the planet was young, as well as radioactive decay as in the case of the earth. Impacts would have had significantly higher velocity than on Earth, both because Venus moves faster due to its closer proximity to the Sun and because high-eccentricity objects colliding with the planet would have high speeds.
In 2008 and 2009, the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express, in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma, near the shield volcano Maat Mons. Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit. These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions. The actual temperatures are not known, because the size of the hot spots could not be measured, but are likely to have been in the 800-1,100 K (527-827 °C; 980-1,520 °F) range, relative to a normal temperature of 740 K (467 °C; 872 °F). In 2023, scientists reexamined topographical images of the Maat Mons region taken by the Magellan orbiter. Using computer simulations, they determined that the topography had changed during an 8-month interval, and concluded that active volcanism was the cause.
Craters
There are almost a thousand impact craters on Venus, evenly distributed across its surface.On other cratered bodies, such as Earth and the Moon, craters show a range of states of degradation. On the Moon, degradation is caused by subsequent impacts, whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion. On Venus, about 85% of the craters are in pristine condition. The number of craters, together with their well-preserved condition, indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event 300-600 million years ago, followed by a decay in volcanism. Whereas Earth's crust is in continuous motion, Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process. Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle, Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust. Then, over a period of about 100 million years, subduction occurs on an enormous scale, completely recycling the crust.
Venusian craters range from 3 to 280 km (2 to 174 mi) in diameter. No craters are smaller than 3 km, because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects. Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater. Incoming projectiles less than 50 m (160 ft) in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground.
Internal structure
Without data from reflection seismology or knowledge of its moment of inertia, little direct information has been available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus. The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests that they share a similar internal structure: a core, mantle, and crust. Like that of Earth, the Venusian core is most likely at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate, although a completely solid core cannot be ruled out. The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24% lower in its deep interior than Earth's. The predicted values for the moment of inertia based on planetary models suggest a core radius of 2,900-3,450 km. There is now an estimate of 3,500 km from the moment of inertia based on the rate of axial precession, measured between 2006 and 2020.
The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus, possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous. This results in reduced heat loss from the planet, preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field. Instead, Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events.
Magnetic field and core
In 1967, Venera 4 found Venus's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth. This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind, rather than by an internal dynamo as in the Earth's core. Venus's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against solar and cosmic radiation.
The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field on Venus was surprising, given that it is similar to Earth in size and was expected to contain a dynamo at its core. A dynamo requires three things: a conducting liquid, rotation, and convection. The core is thought to be electrically conductive and, although its rotation is often thought to be too slow, simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo. This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus's core. On Earth, convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much higher in temperature than the top. On Venus, a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust. This insulating effect would cause the mantle temperature to increase, thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core. As a result, no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field.
Instead, the heat from the core is reheating the crust. One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core, or that its core is not cooling, so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature. Another possibility is that its core has already been completely solidified. The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulphur, which is unknown at present.
Another possibility is that the absence of a large impact on Venus (contra the Earth's "Moon-forming" impact) left the core of Venus stratified from the core's incremental formation, and without the forces to initiate/sustain convection, and thus a "geodynamo".
The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind interacts directly with its outer atmosphere. Here, ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of water molecules due to ultraviolet radiation. The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient speed to escape Venus's gravity field. This erosion process results in a steady loss of low-mass hydrogen, helium, and oxygen ions, whereas higher-mass molecules, such as carbon dioxide, are more likely to be retained.
Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind could have led to the loss of most of Venus's water during the first billion years after it formed. However, the planet may have retained a dynamo for its first 2-3 billion years, so the water loss may have occurred more recently. The erosion has increased the ratio of higher-mass deuterium to lower-mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system.
Atmosphere and climate
Venus has a dense atmosphere composed of 96.5% carbon dioxide, 3.5% nitrogen-both exist as supercritical fluids at the planet's surface with a density 6.5% that of water -and traces of other gases including sulphur dioxide. The mass of its atmosphere is 92 times that of Earth's, whereas the pressure at its surface is about 93 times that at Earth's-a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 km (5/8 mi) under Earth's ocean surfaces. The density at the surface is 65 kg/mÂģ (4.1 lb/cu ft), 6.5% that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth's atmosphere at 293 K (20 °C; 68 °F) at sea level. The CO2-rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System, creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K (462 °C; 864 °F). This makes the Venusian surface hotter than Mercury's, which has a minimum surface temperature of 53 K (-220 °C; -364 °F) and maximum surface temperature of 700 K (427 °C; 801 °F), even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury's distance from the Sun and thus receives only around a quarter of Mercury's solar irradiance, of 2,600 W/mÂē (double that of Earth). Because of its runaway greenhouse effect, Venus has been identified by scientists such as Carl Sagan as a warning and research object linked to climate change on Earth. Therefore Venus has been called a greenhouse planet, a planet under a greenhouse inferno.
Venus's atmosphere is rich in primordial noble gases compared to that of Earth. This enrichment indicates an early divergence from Earth in evolution. An unusually large comet impact or accretion of a more massive primary atmosphere from the solar nebula have been proposed to explain the enrichment. However, the atmosphere is poor in radiogenic argon-40, a proxy for mantle degassing, suggesting an early shutdown of major magmatism.
Studies have suggested that billions of years ago, the atmosphere of Venus may have been much more like the one surrounding the early Earth, and there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface. After a period of 600 million to several billion years, the rising luminosity of the Sun and possibly large volcanic resurfacing caused the evaporation of the original water. A runaway greenhouse effect was created once a critical level of greenhouse gases (including water) was reached in the atmosphere
Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any terrestrial-like life that might have formed before this event, there is speculation that life may exist in the upper cloud layers of Venus, 50 km (30 mi) above the surface, where atmospheric conditions are the most Earth-like in the Solar System. with temperatures ranging between 303 and 353 K (30 and 80 °C; 86 and 176 °F), and the pressure and radiation being about the same as at Earth's surface, but with acidic clouds and the carbon dioxide air. More specifically, between heights of 48 and 59 km temperature and radiation conditions are suitible for life. At lower elevations water would evaporate and at higher elevation UV radiation would be too strong. The putative detection of an absorption line of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere, with no known pathway for abiotic production, led to speculation in September 2020 that there could be extant life currently present in the atmosphere. Later research attributed the spectroscopic signal that was interpreted as phosphine to sulphur dioxide, or found that in fact there was no absorption line.
Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the surface temperature does not vary significantly between the hemispheres facing and not facing the Sun, despite Venus's slow rotation. Winds at the surface are slow, moving at a few kilometres per hour, but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface, they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions, and transport dust and small stones across the surface. This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through, even without the heat, pressure, and lack of oxygen.
Above the dense CO2 layer are thick clouds 45 to 70 km above the surface, consisting mainly of sulphuric acid, which is formed by a reaction catalyzed by UV radiation from sulphur dioxide molecules and then water, resulting in sulphuric acid hydrate. Additionally, the clouds contain approximately 1% ferric chloride. Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate, aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride. Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions. These clouds reflect, like thick cloud cover on Earth, about 70% of the sunlight that falls on them back into space, and since they cover the whole planet they prevent visual observation of the surface. The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun, it receives less sunlight on the ground, with only 10% of the received sunlight reaching the surface, resulting in average daytime levels of illumination
at the surface of 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds". Strong 300 km/h (185 mph) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days. Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation, whereas Earth's fastest winds are only 10-20% rotation speed.
Although Venus looks featureless in visible light, there are bands or streaks in the UV, whose origin has not been pinned down. The absorption of UV may be due to a compound of oxygen and sulfur, OSSO, which has a double bond between the sulfur atoms and exists in "cis" and "trans" forms, or due to polysulfur compounds from S2 to S8.
The surface of Venus is effectively
isothermal; it retains a constant temperature not only between the two hemispheres but between the equator and the poles. Venus's minute axial tilt-less than 3°, compared to 23° on Earth-also minimizes seasonal temperature variation.
Altitude is one of the few factors that affect Venusian temperatures. The highest point on Venus, Maxwell Montes, is therefore the coolest point on Venus, with a temperature of about 655 K (380 °C; 715 °F) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4.5 MPa (45 bar). In 1995, the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks, a "Venus snow" that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow. This substance likely formed by a similar process to snow, albeit at a far higher temperature. Too volatile to condense on the surface, it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations, where it is cooler and could precipitate. The identity of this substance is not known with certainty, but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide (galena). Although Venus has no seasons, in 2019 astronomers identified a cyclical variation in sunlight absorption by the atmosphere, possibly caused by opaque, absorbing particles suspended in the upper clouds. The variation causes observed changes in the speed of Venus's zonal winds and appears to rise and fall in time with the Sun's 11-year sunspot cycle.
The existence of lightning in the atmosphere of Venus has been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes. In 2006-07, Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves, the signatures of lightning. Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity. According to these measurements, the lightning rate is at least half that on Earth, however other instruments have not detected lightning at all. The origin of any lightning remains unclear, but could originate from clouds or Venusian volcanoes.
In 2007, Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric polar vortex exists at the south pole. Venus Express discovered, in 2011, that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus. In 2013 ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to "the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions. In December 2015, and to a lesser extent in April and May 2016, researchers working on Japan's Akatsuki mission observed bow-shaped objects in the atmosphere of Venus. This was considered direct evidence of the existence of perhaps the largest stationary gravity waves in the solar system.
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#PhasesOfTheMoonThailandðđð
#QueenOfTheUniverseððđð
āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļģāđāļŠāļāļāļāđāļāļĄāļđāļĨāļāļ·āđāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļĩāđāļĒāļ§āļāļąāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāđāļĨāđāļ§ āļĒāļąāļāļĄāļĩāļĢāļēāļĒāļĨāļ°āđāļāļĩāļĒāļāļāļĩāđāļāđāļēāļŠāļāđāļāđāļāļĩāđāļĒāļ§āļāļąāļāļĨāļąāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļāļāļēāļ°āļāļāļāļāļ·āđāļāļāļīāļ§āđāļĨāļ°āļĨāļąāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļĢāļāļĩāļ§āļīāļāļĒāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđ āđāļāđāļ āļāļ·āđāļāļāļĩāđāļŠāļđāļāļāļĩāđāđāļĢāļĩāļĒāļāļ§āđāļē "Ovda Regio" āļāļķāđāļāđāļāđāļāļŠāđāļ§āļāļŦāļāļķāđāļāļāļāļāļ āļēāļāļāļ·āđāļāļāļīāļāļāļĩāđāļĄāļĩāļĨāļąāļāļĐāļāļ°āđāļāļāļēāļ°āđāļĨāļ°āļĄāļĩāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļģāļāļąāļāļāļēāļāļ§āļīāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢāđ āđāļĢāļ·āđāļāļāļāļāļ "arachnoids" āļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāļāđāđāļāđāļāļŠāļīāđāļāļāļĩāđāļāđāļēāļŠāļāđāļ āđāļāļ·āđāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļāđāļāļĢāļāļĒāđāļāļāļāļāļāļāļ·āđāļāļāļīāļ§āļāļĩāđāļĄāļĩāļĨāļąāļāļĐāļāļ°āļāļĨāđāļēāļĒāđāļĒāđāļĄāļāļĄāļļāļĄ āļāļķāđāļāļŠāļ°āļāđāļāļāļāļķāļāļāļīāļāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļāļ āļđāđāļāļēāđāļāđāļĨāļ°āļĢāļāļĒāđāļāļāļāļāļāđāļāđāļāđāļāļĨāļ·āļāļāđāļĨāļāđāļāļāļāļĩāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĩāđ āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĢāļĩāļĒāļāđāļāļĩāļĒāļāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§āđāļēāļāļĢāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļāļĢāđāļāļ "sidereal" āđāļĨāļ° "synodic" āļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāļāđāļ§āļĒāđāļŦāđāđāļāđāļēāđāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļąāļĄāļāļąāļāļāđāļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨāļ·āđāļāļāļāļĩāđāļĢāļ°āļŦāļ§āđāļēāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāđāļĨāļ°āđāļĨāļ āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļĻāļķāļāļĐāļēāđāļĢāļ·āđāļāļ "osculating plane" āđāļāđāļāđāļāļĢāļ·āđāļāļāļĄāļ·āļāļŠāļģāļāļąāļāļŠāļģāļŦāļĢāļąāļāļāļēāļĢāļ§āļīāđāļāļĢāļēāļ°āļŦāđāļ§āļāđāļāļāļĢāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āđāļāļĢāļēāļ°āļŦāđ āđāļāđāļāđāļāļāļāļāļĢāļĢāļĄāļāļēāļāļīāļāļāļāļāļąāļ§āļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāđāļāļ āļāļēāļĢāļĻāļķāļāļĐāļēāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļāļāļāđāļēāļāļāļāļāļĢāļąāļĻāļĄāļĩāļāļ°āļāļāļĄ (atomic radius) āđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĨāļĩāđāļĒāļāđāļāļĨāļāđāļāļāļĨāļļāđāļĄāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļēāļāļāļēāļāļļ āļāđāļ§āļĒāđāļŦāđāđāļĢāļēāļĄāļāļāđāļŦāđāļāļ āļēāļāļĢāļ§āļĄāļāļāļāļāļāļāđāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļāļēāļāđāļāļĄāļĩāđāļĨāļ°āļāļļāļāļŠāļĄāļāļąāļāļīāļāļāļāļāļĢāļĢāļĒāļēāļāļēāļĻ āđāļĢāļ·āđāļāļāđāļŠāļĩāļĒāļāļāđāļēāļāļāļģāļĻāļąāļāļāđāļāļēāļāļ§āļīāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢāđ āđāļāđāļ "phosphine" āđāļĨāļ° "emissivity" āļāđāļĄāļĩāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļģāļāļąāļāļŠāļģāļŦāļĢāļąāļāļāļđāđāļāļĩāđāļāđāļāļāļāļēāļĢāđāļĢāļĩāļĒāļāļĢāļđāđāđāļāļīāđāļĄāđāļāļīāļĄāđāļāļĩāđāļĒāļ§āļāļąāļāļāļāļāđāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāđāļĨāļ°āļāļļāļāļŠāļĄāļāļąāļāļīāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđāļāļĒāđāļēāļāļāļđāļāļāđāļāļ āļāļāļāļāļēāļāļāļĩāđ āļāļēāļĢāļ§āļąāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŦāļāļēāđāļāđāļāļāļāļāđāļāđāļāļāđāļĄāļ·āđāļāđāļāļĩāļĒāļāļāļąāļāļāļāļāļāļīāđāļāļāļāļĩāđāļāļļāļāļŦāļ āļđāļĄāļīāđāļĨāļ°āļāļ§āļēāļĄāļāļąāļāđāļāļĩāļĒāļ§āļāļąāļāđāļāđāļāļāđāļāļĄāļđāļĨāļŠāļģāļāļąāļāļāļĩāđāđāļāļĩāđāļĒāļ§āļāđāļāļāļāļąāļāļāļēāļĢāļ§āļīāļāļąāļĒāļāļĢāļĢāļĒāļēāļāļēāļĻāļāļāļāļāļēāļ§āļĻāļļāļāļĢāđ āļāļķāđāļāļŠāđāļāļāļĨāļāđāļāļāļēāļĢāļāļģāļāļ§āļēāļĄāđāļāđāļēāđāļāļ§āđāļēāļāļĢāļĢāļĒāļēāļāļēāļĻāļāļĩāđāļĄāļĩāļāļĨāļāļĢāļ°āļāļāļāļĒāđāļēāļāđāļĢāļāđāļāļāļĢāļēāļāļāļāļēāļĢāļāđāļ āļđāļĄāļīāļāļēāļāļēāļĻ āđāļāļāļēāļāļ°āļāļĩāđāļāļđāđāđāļāļĩāļĒāļāļĄāļĩāļāļĢāļ°āļŠāļāļāļēāļĢāļāđāđāļĨāļ°āļāļīāļāļāļēāļĄāļāđāļāļĄāļđāļĨāļ§āļīāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢāđāļāļ§āļāļēāļĻāļāļĒāđāļēāļāļĨāļ°āđāļāļĩāļĒāļ āļāļēāļĢāđāļāļĢāđāļāđāļāļĄāļđāļĨāđāļāļīāļāļĨāļķāļāđāļŦāļĨāđāļēāļāļĩāđāļāļ°āļāđāļ§āļĒāđāļŦāđāļāļđāđāļāđāļēāļāđāļāđāļĢāļąāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļĢāļđāđāļāļĩāđāļāļĢāļāļāđāļ§āļāđāļĨāļ°āđāļāđāļēāđāļāļāļĢāļ°āđāļāđāļāļāļĩāđāļāļąāļāļāđāļāļāđāļŦāļĨāđāļēāļāļĩāđāđāļāđāļāļĩāļĒāļīāđāļāļāļķāđāļ āļāļąāđāļāļĒāļąāļāļŠāđāļāđāļŠāļĢāļīāļĄāđāļŦāđāđāļāļīāļāļāļ§āļēāļĄāļŠāļāđāļāđāļāļāđāļēāļāļ§āļīāļāļĒāļēāļĻāļēāļŠāļāļĢāđāļāļ§āļāļēāļĻāđāļĨāļ°āļāļēāļĢāļŠāļģāļĢāļ§āļāļāļēāļ§āđāļāļĢāļēāļ°āļŦāđāļĄāļēāļāļāļķāđāļāđāļāļāļļāļĄāļāļāđāļāļĒ
