Generally there are two types of graph: rate against conc graph and conc against time graph. 👉ZERO order: -Rate is independent of concentration of reactant -Rate against Conc graph: a horizontal line indicates that any change in the concentration of reactant will not affect the rate of r

Comparison of the physical properties of graphite and diamond: ⭐️ Structure determines physical properties 👉 Melting point: Both have high melting points due to strong covalent bonds. The difference in their melting points can be explained using the concept of hybridization (s-character)

Hybridisation questions usually come in these types: 👉 Determine hybridisation state — count the electron density, i.e. the number of bonding pairs + lone pairs (electron domains). 👉 Drawing — check whether the question wants hybrid orbitals only, hybrid + unhybridized orbitals, or the orbita

The reducing agents most commonly tested in exams are hydrogen gas, lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), and sodium borohydride (NaBH4). Each of them works best with specific functional groups, so it’s important to know their particular uses. Summarising their reactivity in a table makes the pattern

Oxidising agents are essential in many chemical reactions, particularly in redox processes, and for A level chemistry, two commonly tested oxidising agents are potassium manganate (VII) (KMnO4) and potassium dichromate (VI) (K2Cr2O7). Potassium manganate (VII) is a strong oxidising agent, widel

Understanding reaction mechanisms can reveal a lot of info: 👉 Rate Equation: The slowest step (rate-determining step) controls the reaction rate. The ratio of reactants involved in this step corresponds to the reaction order. If the slow step isn’t the first step, don’t forget to check the in

1️⃣ Calorimetry - Use q = mcΔT then ΔH = (+/-) q/n - m = mass of the whole reaction mixture or water being heated, not the reactant - q is in joules (J) - ΔH must carry a + or – sign - Neutralisation: n = moles of H₂O produced - All other reactions: n = moles of the limiting reagent 2️⃣

1️⃣ Draw two guide lines. These lines split the graph into four zones. - Vertical dashed line at the equivalence volume (x-axis). - Horizontal dashed line at pH 7 (y-axis). 2️⃣ Mark the initial pH. This value depends on what’s inside the conical flask. Each one has a different calculation fo

👉 Is an aqueous solution containing a cation acidic? - High-charge metal cations undergo partial hydrolysis, making the solution acidic. 👉 Is a metal hydroxide soluble in excess NaOH or NH₃? - Solubility is due to the formation of soluble complex ions, which shifts the position of equilibr