Synaptic Transmission Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate with each other. When an electrical impulse reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles. These chemicals cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on

Hemoglobin Oxygen Transport Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body. In the lungs, oxygen binds to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin. This binding is reversible, allowing oxygen to be released where it is needed. As blood reaches tissues with lo

Immune Response The immune response is the body’s reaction to harmful substances like pathogens or toxins. It begins when the body detects foreign antigens. The innate immune response acts first, providing a rapid and non-specific defense using cells like macrophages and neutrophils. If th

How Genes Are Modified Genes can be modified by changing the DNA sequence to alter how they function. This is done through genetic engineering, where specific genes are added, removed, or edited. Techniques like recombinant DNA technology allow scientists to insert desired genes into an organ

Gene Expression From DNA to Protein Notes Gene expression is the process by which genetic information in DNA is used to produce proteins. It begins with transcription, where a specific segment of DNA is copied into messenger RNA in the nucleus. This mRNA carries the genetic code to the cytopl

Cell Signaling Cell signaling is the process by which cells communicate with each other to coordinate functions. It involves signaling molecules like hormones or neurotransmitters that bind to specific receptors on target cells. This binding triggers a series of internal reactions known as si

Journey of Oxygen Oxygen follows a continuous path through the body to support energy production in cells. It begins when oxygen enters the body through inhalation and reaches the lungs. In the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into the blood and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. The oxygen-r